Access to justice refers to the ability of individuals to understand, engage with, and effectively use legal systems to protect their rights and resolve disputes. In practice, this includes access to clear information, fair procedures, proportionate costs, reasonable timeframes, and decision-making processes that are intelligible to those without legal representation.

Content under this tag examines how court processes, procedural design, resource imbalance, and the rise of litigants in person affect real-world access to legal remedies. It also explores the responsible use of technology, including AI, as a support tool to improve clarity, organisation, and procedural compliance — without replacing legal advice or judicial discretion.

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Mazur, AI, and the Future of Legal Support | JSH Law

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The legal landscape is shifting in two powerful directions at once. On one hand, the High Court decision in Mazur v Charles Russell Speechlys LLP has reinforced the boundaries around who can legally conduct litigation. On the other, artificial intelligence is rapidly expanding what litigants in person are capable of achieving without formal representation. These developments are not in conflict—they are converging. Together, they are reshaping the future of legal support into something more structured, more transparent, and ultimately more empowering for those navigating the system themselves.

Mazur, AI, and the Future of Legal Support | JSH Law
Key Takeaways
  • Mazur reinforces that conduct of litigation must remain with authorised or exempt individuals.
  • AI does not replace the litigant — it enhances their ability to run their case.
  • The future of legal support lies in structured, transparent, tech-enabled models.
  • Litigants in person can become more capable, not more dependent.
  • The combination of AI and proper legal structure will redefine access to justice.

Mazur, AI, and the Future of Legal Support

The legal system is entering a period of change that is both structural and technological.

On one side, the High Court decision in Mazur v Charles Russell Speechlys LLP [2025] EWHC 2341 (KB) has reinforced the boundaries of who can legally conduct litigation. On the other, the rapid development of artificial intelligence is transforming how legal work is prepared, structured, and delivered.

At first glance, these developments may appear to be in tension.

One restricts who can carry out certain legal functions. The other expands who can access tools that were once limited to professionals.

In reality, they are moving in the same direction.

Towards a legal system where structure, transparency, and capability matter more than ever.

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The Reinforcement of Legal Boundaries

The significance of Mazur lies not in creating new law, but in clarifying how existing law is to be applied.

The decision reinforces a simple but important principle:

The conduct of litigation is a reserved activity. It cannot be delegated simply through supervision or informal arrangements.

This draws a clear boundary around who can formally run a case.

For litigants in person, that boundary is not a barrier—it is a framework.

It confirms that the case is, and remains, theirs.

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The Rise of AI in Legal Support

At the same time, artificial intelligence is rapidly changing how legal work is done.

Tasks that once required significant time and expertise can now be supported by systems that:

  • Analyse large volumes of documents
  • Structure arguments and chronologies
  • Assist with drafting and refinement
  • Identify gaps and inconsistencies

These tools are not theoretical.

They are already being used across the legal sector, from large firms to individual practitioners.

The question is not whether AI will play a role in legal support.

It is how that role is defined.

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AI Does Not Conduct Litigation

This is where the alignment between Mazur and AI becomes clear.

AI does not “conduct litigation”.

It does not make decisions, take responsibility, or act on behalf of a party in a legal sense.

What it does is enhance capability.

It enables:

  • Better preparation
  • Clearer structure
  • More efficient organisation

Used properly, AI sits firmly within the category of support.

It strengthens the litigant’s ability to run their own case, rather than replacing them.

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A Shift From Representation to Enablement

Traditionally, legal services have been built around representation.

A solicitor or barrister takes conduct of the case and acts on behalf of the client.

For many litigants in person, that model is not accessible.

What is emerging instead is a different model.

One based on enablement.

In this model:

  • The litigant remains in control
  • Support is provided to enhance capability
  • Technology is used to improve structure and clarity

This is not a second-tier alternative.

It is a distinct and increasingly important part of the legal ecosystem.

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The Risk of Getting It Wrong

As with any shift, there are risks.

AI, if misunderstood, can create the same problems as poorly structured human support.

If it is used in a way that removes the litigant from decision-making, or creates a sense that the case is being “run externally”, then the underlying issue remains.

The tool itself is not the risk.

How it is used is what matters.

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The Opportunity for Litigants in Person

For litigants in person, this moment presents a significant opportunity.

With the right approach, it is now possible to:

  • Prepare cases to a higher standard
  • Organise evidence more effectively
  • Present arguments with greater clarity

Without stepping outside the boundaries of the law.

This is not about replacing legal professionals.

It is about increasing the capability of those who are navigating the system themselves.

—

A More Structured Future

The combined effect of Mazur and AI is likely to lead to a more structured approach to legal support.

We can expect to see:

  • Clearer definitions of roles
  • More transparent support models
  • Greater emphasis on litigant control

At the same time, the tools available to litigants will continue to improve.

This creates a system that is both more disciplined and more accessible.

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Where This Leaves Legal Professionals

For legal professionals, this shift is not a threat—it is a redefinition.

There will always be a need for authorised representation.

But alongside that, there is a growing space for:

  • Strategic support
  • Case structuring
  • Technology-enabled assistance

Those who understand this shift are likely to play a key role in shaping the future of legal services.

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Final Thoughts

The legal system is not standing still.

Mazur reinforces the boundaries of who can formally conduct litigation.

AI expands the tools available to those who cannot access traditional representation.

Together, they point towards a future where:

Litigants in person are not left behind — but are better equipped, better supported, and more capable than ever before.

The key is structure.

Get that right, and both law and technology work in your favour.

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Want to Use AI and Legal Strategy Properly in Your Case?

If you are a litigant in person and want structured, forward-thinking support that combines legal strategy with modern tools, you can book an initial consultation below.

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Regulatory & Editorial Notice: JSH Law Ltd is not a firm of solicitors and does not provide regulated legal services. This article is for general information and commentary only and does not constitute legal advice. Any references to legal cases or third-party practices are provided for public interest analysis and educational purposes.

How to Stay Safe as a Litigant in Person After Mazur (Step-by-Step Guide) | JSH Law

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If you are a litigant in person, the way your case is structured now matters more than ever. Following the High Court decision in Mazur v Charles Russell Speechlys LLP, the court has made it clear that only authorised or exempt individuals can conduct litigation—and that line is being looked at more closely in practice. The result is that many people, often without realising it, may be exposing their case to unnecessary risk simply through how it is being handled. The good news is that this is entirely manageable. With the right structure in place, you can stay fully compliant, protect your position, and strengthen your case at the same time.

How to Stay Safe as a Litigant in Person After Mazur (Step-by-Step Guide) | JSH Law
Key Takeaways for Litigants in Person
  • You must remain in control of your case at all times.
  • Support is allowed — but it must not become “conduct of litigation”.
  • The court is increasingly alert to who is actually running the case.
  • Clear structure protects your credibility and your position.
  • Simple procedural discipline can eliminate most risks.

How to Stay Safe as a Litigant in Person After Mazur (Step-by-Step Guide)

If you are a litigant in person, you are already carrying a significant responsibility.

You are managing your own case, navigating court procedure, and making decisions that may have long-term consequences for you and your family.

Following the High Court decision in Mazur v Charles Russell Speechlys LLP [2025] EWHC 2341 (KB), there is now an additional layer to that responsibility:

You must not only run your case — you must be seen to be running it.

This is where many people unintentionally expose themselves to risk.

This guide sets out, in practical terms, how to stay safe, compliant, and in control — while still getting the support you need.

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Step 1: Understand the One Rule That Matters

Everything in this area comes back to a single principle:

You are the one conducting your case.

That means:

  • You make the decisions
  • You give the instructions
  • You take responsibility for what is filed and said

This is not about doing everything alone.

It is about ensuring that, at every stage, it is clear that the case is yours.

If that is maintained, you are on solid ground.

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Step 2: Separate “Support” from “Control”

The most common mistake litigants make is confusing support with control.

Support is allowed — and often essential.

Control must remain with you.

To make this clear, apply this simple test:

“Am I the one making the decision and taking the step?”

If the answer is yes, you are within the correct structure.

If the answer is unclear, that is where risk begins.

For example:

  • If someone drafts a document for you → that is support
  • If someone decides what goes in that document → that may be control
  • If someone sends the document on your behalf → that may cross the line

The difference is subtle, but important.

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Step 3: Take Ownership of Every Document

Every document in your case should be something you can stand behind.

That means:

  • You have read it
  • You understand it
  • You agree with it

In practical terms:

  • Do not submit anything you have not reviewed carefully
  • Do not rely on “it’s been handled”
  • Do not allow documents to be sent without your approval

Your name is on the case. The responsibility follows it.

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Step 4: You Send the Emails

This is one of the simplest and most important safeguards.

All communications with:

  • The court
  • The other party
  • Solicitors

should be sent by you.

Support can help you draft those emails.

But you should be the one pressing send.

This ensures that:

  • Your role is clear
  • Your control is visible
  • Your position cannot be easily challenged

It also reinforces your credibility as a litigant in person.

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Step 5: You Sign and File Everything

This is non-negotiable.

All documents:

  • Statements
  • Position statements
  • Applications

must be:

  • Signed by you
  • Filed by you

This is not just procedural.

It is a clear marker of who is conducting the case.

Where that marker is missing, questions can arise.

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Step 6: Maintain a Clear Audit Trail

If your case were examined closely, you should be able to show:

  • That you made decisions
  • That you approved documents
  • That you gave instructions

This does not require complex systems.

It can be as simple as:

  • Email confirmations
  • Document versions showing your approval
  • Clear communication records

The aim is clarity.

If it is clear that you are in control, your position is protected.

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Step 7: Be Careful Who You Rely On

Not all support is structured in the same way.

Some models are careful to remain within the boundaries of support.

Others may move closer to running the case, sometimes without clearly recognising the distinction.

This is not always obvious at the outset.

But you should be alert to signs such as:

  • Someone taking over communications
  • Decisions being made without your input
  • A sense that the case is being “handled” for you

These are indicators that the structure may need to be corrected.

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Step 8: Understand How the Court Sees It

The court is not concerned with internal arrangements.

It looks at what is visible.

From the court’s perspective, the key question is simple:

Who appears to be running this case?

If the answer is clearly you, there is no issue.

If the answer is unclear, the court may take a closer look.

Clarity removes that risk entirely.

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Step 9: Do Not Lose Your Voice in Your Own Case

One of the unintended consequences of over-reliance on support is that litigants can lose confidence in their own voice.

This can show in:

  • Hesitation in court
  • Uncertainty about their own position
  • Difficulty responding to questions

Staying in control of your case avoids this.

It ensures that:

  • You understand your arguments
  • You can explain your position
  • You remain engaged with the process

This is not just legally important.

It is strategically important.

—

Step 10: Use Support Properly — and Powerfully

The answer to all of this is not to avoid support.

It is to use it properly.

When structured correctly, support can:

  • Strengthen your case
  • Improve your preparation
  • Increase your confidence
  • Enhance how your case is presented

But it should always operate behind your role — not replace it.

You remain the decision-maker. Support strengthens you, not substitutes you.

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Step 11: Recognise the Red Flags Early

One of the most effective ways to protect your case is to recognise when the structure is beginning to drift.

This rarely happens suddenly. It is usually gradual.

Support becomes more involved. Communication becomes more direct. Decisions start to feel less like yours and more like something being done “for you”.

That is the point at which you need to pause and reassess.

Common red flags include:

  • Emails being sent without your direct involvement
  • Documents being finalised without your review
  • Instructions being given on your behalf
  • A sense that you are being told what will happen, rather than deciding it

None of these, in isolation, automatically creates a problem.

But taken together, they can indicate that the structure of your case is no longer clear.

Clarity is what protects you. Loss of clarity is what creates risk.

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Step 12: Real-World Scenario — Where Things Go Wrong

To understand how easily this can happen, consider a common scenario.

A litigant in person is overwhelmed. They engage someone to help. That person is experienced and confident. They begin by assisting with drafting. Then they begin to suggest wording. Then they begin to take a more active role in communication.

At first, this feels helpful.

Over time, however, the balance shifts.

The litigant becomes less involved in the detail. Documents are trusted without being fully reviewed. Emails are sent quickly to “keep things moving”.

From the outside, it may now appear that the case is being run by someone else.

This is not usually intentional.

But intention is not the test.

What matters is how the case is being conducted in practice.

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Step 13: The “Safe Structure” Checklist

If you want to be confident that your case is properly structured, use this checklist.

You should be able to answer “yes” to all of the following:

  • I make the final decisions in my case
  • I review and approve every document before it is sent
  • I send all emails in my own name
  • I sign all statements and applications personally
  • I understand the key points being made in my case
  • I can explain my position to the court

If any of these answers are “no”, that is an opportunity to bring the structure back into line.

This is not about blame.

It is about clarity and control.

—

Step 14: Common Mistakes to Avoid

There are a number of recurring mistakes that litigants make, particularly when under pressure.

These include:

1. Delegating decisions
Allowing someone else to decide what should be said or done without your full involvement.

2. Not reviewing documents properly
Signing or sending documents without fully understanding their content.

3. Allowing others to communicate on your behalf
This is one of the clearest ways the line can be crossed.

4. Becoming disengaged from the case
Relying too heavily on support can reduce your own understanding and confidence.

Each of these is understandable.

But each can also weaken your position if not addressed.

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Step 15: How This Strengthens Your Case — Not Just Protects It

It is important to recognise that these steps are not simply about avoiding problems.

They actively improve your case.

When you are clearly in control:

  • Your credibility with the court increases
  • Your submissions are more coherent
  • Your responses are more confident
  • Your case is more resilient to challenge

Judges are used to dealing with litigants in person.

What they look for is clarity, engagement, and understanding.

A well-structured case demonstrates all three.

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Step 16: Confidence Comes From Control

Many litigants assume that confidence comes from having someone else take over.

In reality, the opposite is true.

Confidence comes from understanding your case and being able to explain it.

That only happens when you remain actively involved.

Support should increase your confidence, not replace your role.

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Step 17: The Strategic Advantage Most People Miss

There is a misconception that staying within these boundaries limits what you can do.

In practice, it creates an advantage.

When your case is structured properly:

  • There is less room for procedural attack
  • Your position is clearer and more focused
  • The court can engage directly with you

At the same time, you still benefit from support behind the scenes.

This combination—control at the front, structure behind—can be extremely effective.

—

Step 18: A Final Word on Balance

This is not about drawing rigid lines that make your case harder to manage.

It is about balance.

You should not feel that you are facing proceedings alone.

But equally, you should not feel that your case is being taken out of your hands.

The correct position sits between those two points.

You are supported, but you remain in control.

—

Final Thoughts

The decision in Mazur has brought clarity to an area that many people did not fully consider.

For litigants in person, that clarity is an opportunity.

It allows you to structure your case in a way that is:

  • Compliant
  • Robust
  • Credible

Most importantly, it ensures that your case is judged on what matters:

The facts, the evidence, and the outcome you are seeking.

Get the structure right, and everything else becomes stronger.

—

Want to Make Sure Your Case Is Structured Properly?

If you are a litigant in person and want support that strengthens your case while keeping you fully compliant and in control, you can book an initial consultation below.

—

Regulatory & Editorial Notice: JSH Law Ltd is not a firm of solicitors and does not provide regulated legal services. This article is for general information and commentary only and does not constitute legal advice. Any references to legal cases or third-party practices are provided for public interest analysis and educational purposes.

The Unregulated Legal Support Market Is Changing – And Not Everyone Will Survive Mazur | JSH Law

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For years, the unregulated legal support market has operated in a space shaped more by necessity than structure. As increasing numbers of litigants in person entered the family courts, support services evolved to fill a widening gap—often quickly, and not always with clearly defined boundaries. The High Court decision in Mazur v Charles Russell Speechlys LLP marks a turning point. It does not change the law, but it does change how closely that law is now being examined in practice. The result is a shift that will not affect everyone equally—and not every model will survive it.

The Unregulated Legal Support Market Is Changing – And Not Everyone Will Survive Mazur | JSH Law
Key Takeaways
  • The unregulated legal support market is entering a period of increased scrutiny.
  • The distinction between support and conduct of litigation is now central.
  • Models that blur this line are likely to face challenge.
  • Structured, transparent support models will become the standard.
  • This shift will reshape access to justice, not remove it.

The Unregulated Legal Support Market Is Changing – And Not Everyone Will Survive Mazur

For years, the unregulated legal support market has operated in a space that was, if not undefined, then at least loosely interpreted in practice.

That space emerged out of necessity. As the number of litigants in person increased—particularly in the family courts—the demand for accessible, affordable support grew with it. In response, a wide range of support models developed, from informal assistance through to highly structured services.

Some of those models have provided genuine value. Others have blurred lines that were always present in law but not always enforced in practice.

The High Court decision in Mazur v Charles Russell Speechlys LLP [2025] EWHC 2341 (KB) signals that this period of ambiguity is coming to an end.

The question is no longer whether the line exists. It is whether it is being respected.

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A Market Built on Demand

To understand the significance of this shift, it is necessary to understand how the current landscape developed.

Over the past decade, the reduction in legal aid and the increasing cost of private representation have resulted in a substantial rise in litigants in person. In family proceedings, this is no longer the exception—it is the norm.

Where demand exists, supply follows.

The result has been the growth of an unregulated support sector, offering services that range from basic administrative help to full-scale case preparation.

In many instances, these services have filled a critical gap.

But the absence of clear structural boundaries has also led to inconsistency in how those services are delivered.

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The Legal Position Was Always Clear

It is important to be precise about one point.

The legal framework has not changed.

The Legal Services Act 2007 has always made clear that “conduct of litigation” is a reserved legal activity. Only authorised or exempt individuals are permitted to carry it out.

What has changed is the level of attention being given to that distinction.

The decision in Mazur reinforces a strict interpretation of the law and, more importantly, signals that the courts are prepared to look beyond labels and examine what is actually happening in practice.

This is a shift from form to substance.

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From Labels to Reality

For some time, the terminology used within the unregulated sector has allowed for a degree of flexibility.

Terms such as “support”, “assistance”, or “case help” can describe a wide range of activity.

The issue is that the law is not concerned with terminology. It is concerned with function.

If a person is, in substance, making decisions, managing the case, and acting on behalf of the litigant, then the question becomes whether they are conducting litigation—regardless of how their role is described.

This is where the impact of Mazur is most significant.

The focus is now on what is being done, not what it is called.

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What This Means for the Sector

This shift is likely to have a filtering effect on the market.

Models that are clearly structured, transparent, and compliant with the legal framework are likely to adapt and continue.

Models that rely on blurred boundaries may find themselves under increasing pressure.

This pressure may come from multiple directions:

  • Opposing parties raising procedural challenges
  • Courts scrutinising the role of those involved in a case
  • Increased awareness among litigants themselves

Over time, this is likely to lead to a more defined and professionalised support landscape.

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The Risk of Misinterpretation

There is, however, a risk that this development is misunderstood.

It would be easy to interpret Mazur as a restriction on support for litigants in person.

That would be the wrong conclusion.

The need for support has not diminished. If anything, it has increased.

The issue is not whether support should exist.

It is how that support is structured.

Well-structured support enhances access to justice. Poorly structured support can undermine it.

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A Turning Point for Professional Standards

This moment represents an opportunity as much as a challenge.

For those operating within the unregulated sector, it creates a clear incentive to:

  • Define their role precisely
  • Ensure that litigants remain in control of their cases
  • Operate transparently and consistently

In doing so, the sector has the potential to evolve.

From a loosely defined collection of services into a more structured, credible, and trusted component of the justice system.

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The Future of Legal Support

Looking ahead, the likely trajectory is not the disappearance of unregulated support, but its refinement.

We are likely to see:

  • Clearer distinctions between support and representation
  • More structured service models
  • Greater awareness among litigants of their own role and responsibility

This aligns with a broader trend within the legal system.

One in which accessibility, transparency, and accountability are becoming increasingly central.

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Final Thoughts

The unregulated legal support market was shaped by necessity.

It is now being shaped by scrutiny.

The decision in Mazur does not close the door on support.

It defines the terms on which that support can operate.

Those who adapt to that structure will continue to provide value. Those who do not may find that the space they have relied upon no longer exists in the same way.

This is not the end of the sector.

It is the beginning of a more defined one.

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Structured Support That Works With the Law

If you are navigating proceedings as a litigant in person and want support that is both effective and properly structured, you can book an initial consultation below.

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Regulatory & Editorial Notice: JSH Law Ltd is not a firm of solicitors and does not provide regulated legal services. This article is for general information and commentary only and does not constitute legal advice. Any references to legal cases or third-party practices are provided for public interest analysis and educational purposes.

Could Your Case Be Invalid? The Hidden Risk After Mazur

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Most litigants in person focus on the evidence in their case—what happened, what can be proven, and what outcome they are asking the court to make. But following the High Court decision in Mazur v Charles Russell Speechlys LLP, there is another issue that is now just as important: who is actually running your case. If that line is blurred, it can create risks that go beyond the facts themselves—affecting how your case is viewed, how it is challenged, and ultimately how strong your position really is.

Could Your Case Be Invalid? The Hidden Risk After Mazur | JSH Law
Key Takeaways for Litigants in Person
  • If someone else is effectively running your case, it may create legal risk.
  • Only authorised or exempt individuals can conduct litigation.
  • The court is increasingly alert to who is actually in control of a case.
  • Opponents may use this issue tactically against you.
  • You must remain visibly and practically in control at all times.

Could Your Case Be Invalid? The Hidden Risk After Mazur

Most litigants in person are focused on the facts of their case.

What happened. What the evidence shows. What outcome they are asking the court to make.

But following the High Court decision in Mazur v Charles Russell Speechlys LLP [2025] EWHC 2341 (KB), there is another issue that cannot be ignored:

Who is actually running your case?

Because if the answer is “not you”, there may now be risks that many people simply haven’t considered.

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Why This Issue Matters More Than Ever

The court in Mazur made it clear that “conduct of litigation” is a reserved legal activity. Only authorised or exempt individuals can carry it out.

This is not new law.

What has changed is how clearly—and how strictly—the courts are now prepared to apply it.

That means the question of who is in control of a case is no longer just technical. It can become a live issue.

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What Could Go Wrong?

If someone else is effectively running your case—making decisions, sending correspondence on your behalf, or managing the process—you may face:

  • Challenges from the other side about how your case has been conducted
  • Increased scrutiny from the court
  • Arguments that your case has not been properly managed

This does not automatically mean your case is “invalid”.

But it does mean that your position may be more open to challenge than you expect.

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The Tactical Reality

Family proceedings are often hard-fought.

Where an opportunity exists to challenge the other party’s position, it is often taken.

Following Mazur, one such line of challenge may be:

“This case has not been conducted properly.”

Even raising that argument can:

  • Shift focus away from your core case
  • Create additional pressure
  • Undermine how your case is perceived

That is a risk worth managing carefully.

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The Most Common Misunderstanding

Many litigants assume that as long as they have help, they are protected.

That is not the test.

The test is control.

Are you the one making the decisions and taking the steps in your case?

If the answer is unclear, that is where problems can begin.

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What a Safe Structure Looks Like

A properly structured case will always show that:

  • You make the decisions
  • You approve all documents
  • You send communications in your own name
  • You sign and file everything

Support can sit behind that.

It can be strong, detailed, and strategic.

But it must remain support.

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Red Flags to Watch For

If any of the following are happening, it is worth stepping back and reassessing:

  • Someone else is emailing the court or the other side on your behalf
  • Documents are being sent without your clear approval
  • Decisions are being made “for you”
  • You feel like you are not fully in control of your case

These are not just practical concerns—they may now carry legal significance.

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Staying in Control Strengthens Your Case

This is not just about avoiding risk.

When you are clearly in control of your case:

  • Your credibility improves
  • Your position is harder to challenge
  • Your case presentation becomes more coherent

Structure is not a limitation.

It is an advantage.

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Final Thoughts

The decision in Mazur does not mean you should face proceedings alone.

It means that how your support is structured now matters more than ever.

The strongest position is one where you are clearly in control, supported by the right structure behind you.

Get that right, and your case remains focused where it should be—on the outcome for you and your family.

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Need Structured Support With Your Case?

If you are a litigant in person and want support that strengthens your case without exposing you to unnecessary risk, you can book an initial consultation below.

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Regulatory & Editorial Notice: JSH Law Ltd is not a firm of solicitors and does not provide regulated legal services. This article is for general information and commentary only and does not constitute legal advice. Any references to legal cases or third-party practices are provided for public interest analysis and educational purposes.

Mazur Explained: The Case That Changes Who Can Run Your Court Case | JSH Law

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The High Court has just drawn a firm line around who is actually allowed to run a court case—and it’s a line many people have been crossing without realising. In Mazur v Charles Russell Speechlys LLP [2025] EWHC 2341 (KB), the court made it clear that only authorised or exempt individuals can conduct litigation, and that supervision is not enough. For litigants in person, this is not just a technical legal point—it goes directly to how your case is handled, how it is perceived by the court, and whether your position is open to challenge.

Mazur Explained: The Case That Changes Who Can Run Your Court Case | JSH Law High Court legal proceedings and litigation documents
Key Takeaways for Litigants in Person
  • Only authorised or exempt individuals can legally conduct litigation.
  • Even well-meaning support can cross the line if someone starts running your case.
  • You must remain in control of your case at all times.
  • Getting this wrong can expose your case to challenge or criticism.
  • Structured, compliant support can strengthen your position significantly.

Mazur Explained: The Case That Changes Who Can Run Your Court Case

There has been a significant shift in how the courts are approaching who is actually allowed to run a case.

The High Court decision in Mazur v Charles Russell Speechlys LLP [2025] EWHC 2341 (KB) has clarified something that, until now, many people in the legal world had quietly blurred:

Only certain people are legally allowed to conduct litigation — and supervision is not enough.

For litigants in person, this matters more than you might realise.

—

What Happened in Mazur?

The case arose from a situation where work on a legal matter had been carried out by someone who was not an authorised solicitor or exempt person, but who was working within a legal environment.

The argument was that because this individual was supervised, their actions were acceptable.

The High Court disagreed.

The judgment made it clear that:

  • “Conduct of litigation” is a reserved legal activity under the Legal Services Act 2007
  • Only authorised or exempt individuals can carry it out
  • Supervision by a solicitor does not make an unauthorised person compliant

This was not a new rule — but it is now being applied much more strictly.

—

What Does “Conduct of Litigation” Actually Mean?

This is the critical question.

It does not just mean standing up in court. It includes:

  • Making decisions about how the case is run
  • Sending correspondence on behalf of a party
  • Filing documents
  • Taking responsibility for procedural steps

In simple terms:

If someone else is effectively running your case — they may be conducting litigation.

—

Why This Matters for Litigants in Person

Many litigants in person rely on support. That support can be incredibly valuable — and in many cases, essential.

But there is now a much sharper line between:

  • Support (which is allowed), and
  • Conduct (which is restricted)

If that line is crossed, it can lead to:

  • Challenges from the other side
  • Increased scrutiny from the court
  • Questions about how the case has been handled

This is not about creating fear — it is about understanding how to stay on solid ground.

—

The Difference Between Support and Running the Case

A properly structured support model looks like this:

  • You make the decisions
  • You send the emails
  • You sign and file the documents
  • You speak for yourself in court

Support can include:

  • Drafting documents for you
  • Helping you prepare your case
  • Advising you on strategy
  • Assisting you in court as a McKenzie Friend

The key distinction is control.

You must remain in control of your case at all times.

—

What This Means in Practice

If you are receiving support, you should always be able to say:

  • “I reviewed and approved this document”
  • “I chose to send this”
  • “These are my instructions”

That clarity protects you.

It also strengthens your credibility in court.

—

A Shift in the Legal Landscape

This decision reflects a wider shift.

The courts are becoming more alert to:

  • Who is actually running a case
  • Whether the proper boundaries are being respected
  • How unregulated support is being used

At the same time, the reality remains:

Access to justice increasingly depends on litigants in person having the right support.

The answer is not less support.

It is better-structured support.

—

Final Thoughts

Mazur does not remove your ability to get help.

What it does is make one thing very clear:

There is a right way to do this — and a wrong way.

If your case is structured properly, support can be a powerful advantage.

If it is not, it can become a vulnerability.

Understanding that distinction is now essential.

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Need Support With Your Case?

If you are navigating proceedings as a litigant in person and want structured, strategic support that keeps your case clear, compliant and strong, you can book an initial consultation below.

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Regulatory & Editorial Notice: JSH Law Ltd is not a firm of solicitors and does not provide regulated legal services. This article is for general information and commentary only and does not constitute legal advice. Any references to legal cases or third-party practices are provided for public interest analysis and educational purposes.

When Things Get Harder First: Faith and Family Court Lessons from Exodus 1–6

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What do you do when you try to do the right thing—and everything gets harder?

That is exactly what happens in Exodus 1–6. Moses obeys God, speaks truth, and steps forward in faith… and the result is not relief, but increased pressure and resistance. For litigants in person navigating family court, that experience will feel familiar. This week’s reflection explores what it means to keep going when progress is slow, outcomes are uncertain, and it feels like nothing is working—while holding on to the truth that God has not forgotten you.

“I Have Remembered My Covenant” — What Exodus 1–6 Teaches Litigants in Person About Delay, Deliverance and Not Losing Faith in the Process

Sunday Reflection | JSH Law

Every Sunday after church I reflect on the scriptures through the lens of the work I do supporting litigants in person navigating the family court. This week’s lesson, “I Have Remembered My Covenant” (Exodus 1–6), is particularly powerful for anyone experiencing prolonged difficulty, delay, or what feels like unanswered pleas for help.

The Israelites were not just struggling—they were enslaved, oppressed, and living under sustained hardship. And perhaps the most difficult part of their experience was not simply the suffering itself, but the question that suffering raises: Has God forgotten us?

If you are in the middle of family court proceedings, especially as a litigant in person, you may recognise that question. When things drag on, when outcomes are unclear, when the system feels slow or unresponsive, it is natural to wonder whether anyone sees what you are going through—let alone God.

This passage answers that question clearly: God does not forget. But He does not always act on our timeline.

Key Takeaways for Litigants in Person

  • Delay is not the same as neglect. The Israelites suffered for years before deliverance came.
  • God sees what others do not. Even when systems feel slow or unfair, you are not unseen.
  • Feeling inadequate does not disqualify you. Moses felt completely unprepared—but was still chosen.
  • Doing the right thing may initially make things harder. Moses obeyed—and Pharaoh increased the burden.
  • Progress is not always immediate or visible. Early steps in a case or situation may feel like setbacks.
  • Faith and structure must work together. You still need to prepare, organise and act.

When life gets harder after you try to do the right thing

One of the most confronting parts of Exodus 5 is that Moses does exactly what God asks—and things get worse.

Pharaoh does not respond with reason or mercy. Instead, he increases the Israelites’ workload and suffering. The people turn on Moses. They blame him. Moses then turns to God and essentially asks:

“Why is this happening? Why did you send me?”

This moment is deeply relatable.

Many litigants in person experience something similar. You take a step forward—issue an application, raise concerns, speak truth, try to follow the correct process—and instead of things improving, they become more complicated.

You may face:

  • more resistance from the other party,
  • delays in listing or decision-making,
  • additional allegations or escalation,
  • emotional exhaustion from the process itself.

It can feel as though doing the right thing has made everything harder.

Exodus shows us that this experience is not unusual. It is part of the process.

God has not forgotten you—even when it feels like it

The turning point comes in Exodus 6, where God speaks clearly:

“I have remembered my covenant.”

This statement matters because it addresses the core fear people carry during prolonged difficulty: that they have been overlooked, abandoned, or forgotten.

In legal proceedings, especially family court, this fear can become intense. You may feel like:

  • your situation is not being fully understood,
  • your evidence is not being seen quickly enough,
  • the process is too slow for the urgency of your circumstances.

And yet the principle remains: being unseen by the system is not the same as being unseen by God.

This distinction can stabilise you. Because if your sense of worth and hope depends entirely on how quickly a system responds, you will be emotionally destabilised again and again.

But if you are anchored in something deeper, you can continue functioning—even while waiting.

Moses: called while feeling completely inadequate

Another key theme in Exodus 3–4 is Moses’s response to being called.

He does not step forward confidently. He hesitates. He questions. He resists. He expresses doubt:

  • “Who am I?”
  • “What if they don’t believe me?”
  • “I am not eloquent.”

This is important because many litigants in person feel exactly the same way.

You may feel:

  • unqualified to represent yourself,
  • uncertain about legal language and procedure,
  • intimidated by the court environment,
  • overwhelmed by what is expected of you.

Moses’s story shows that feeling inadequate does not mean you are incapable. It means you are being stretched.

God does not remove Moses’s responsibility. He equips him for it.

That is the pattern.

Faith does not replace preparation

One of the biggest misconceptions is that faith means waiting passively for things to improve.

Exodus does not support that idea.

Moses is required to:

  • go to Pharaoh,
  • speak clearly,
  • return repeatedly despite resistance,
  • continue even when outcomes are not immediate.

For litigants in person, this translates directly into practical action.

Faith does not replace:

  • preparing your evidence,
  • understanding the process,
  • organising your documents,
  • presenting your case clearly.

It supports it.

If you are navigating child arrangements proceedings, the official guidance on applying for orders can be found here:

Apply for a child arrangements order

Understanding the process reduces fear. Preparation reduces chaos.

God works through ordinary people

Another powerful aspect of this lesson is the role of seemingly ordinary individuals—particularly the women in Exodus 1–2 who protect and preserve life.

They are not central figures in a legal or political sense. But they are essential to the outcome.

This matters because many litigants in person underestimate their own role.

You do not need to be legally trained to:

  • tell the truth clearly,
  • document events accurately,
  • protect your child’s welfare,
  • maintain your integrity.

Small, consistent actions matter.

In many cases, they matter more than dramatic gestures.

When progress feels invisible

One of the hardest aspects of both spiritual life and legal process is that progress is often invisible in the early stages.

Moses does not see immediate change.

The Israelites do not feel immediate relief.

In fact, things initially deteriorate.

This can happen in family court too. Early hearings may not resolve everything. Interim arrangements may feel imperfect. The full picture may take time to emerge.

That does not mean nothing is happening.

It means you are in the early stages of a longer process.

A practical reset for litigants in person

If you are currently in proceedings, here is a grounded way to apply this week’s lesson:

  1. Accept that delay may be part of the process.
  2. Focus on what you can control.
  3. Prepare consistently, not reactively.
  4. Expect resistance—and plan for it.
  5. Do not interpret difficulty as failure.
  6. Stay anchored in purpose, not emotion.

You do not need to solve everything today.

You need to take the next structured step.

15-minute consultation

If you are a litigant in person and need help understanding your case, preparing for hearing, or bringing structure and clarity to your situation, you can book a 15-minute consultation below.

Final reflection

I am proud to be a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and one of the reasons I value these weekly reflections is that scripture does not avoid difficult realities.

Exodus begins not with triumph, but with oppression, confusion and unanswered questions.

And yet the central truth remains:

God has not forgotten His people.

If you are in a difficult season—whether in family court or elsewhere—that truth still applies.

You may not yet see how things will unfold.

You may not yet see resolution.

But you are not unseen. You are not abandoned. And this is not the end of the story.

Regulatory & Editorial Notice: This article is for general information and public legal education only. JSH Law Ltd provides litigation support and McKenzie Friend services and is not a regulated firm of solicitors. This article does not constitute legal advice.

When Support Becomes Risk: Domestic Abuse Advocacy, McKenzie Friends and Access to Justice in Family Court

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The legal sector’s wellbeing crisis for women is well documented—but for those supporting litigants in person in family court, the issue runs deeper. This article examines the hidden risks faced by domestic abuse advocates and McKenzie Friends, and why their vulnerability is not just personal, but a systemic access-to-justice concern.

Key takeaways for litigants in person:
  • Support from McKenzie Friends and domestic abuse advocates is often critical—but not formally protected within the legal system.
  • High-conflict family proceedings can lead to allegations being used tactically, sometimes extending to those providing support.
  • The removal or disruption of support—whether through complaints, threats, or police involvement—can significantly impact case outcomes.
  • This is not just a wellbeing issue; it is an access-to-justice issue affecting fairness in family proceedings.
  • Litigants should document all interactions, maintain clear boundaries, and ensure their support network is strategically structured.

When Support Becomes Risk: The Hidden Cost of Domestic Abuse Advocacy in Family Court

Clarity. Strategy. Confidence.

The legal sector is increasingly confronting a difficult truth: women working within it—particularly in high-conflict practice areas—are experiencing sustained levels of burnout, stress, and systemic pressure that are not being adequately addressed.

Recent findings from organisations such as :contentReference[oaicite:0]{index=0} highlight a stark reality. Women in law report lower wellbeing scores and higher levels of burnout than their male counterparts. The causes are often framed in familiar terms: long hours, billable targets, and the ongoing challenge of balancing professional and personal responsibilities.

But this framing, while valid, is incomplete.

There is a more complex—and more uncomfortable—issue operating beneath the surface. One that is rarely acknowledged in formal surveys, policy discussions, or institutional responses.

What happens when the act of supporting vulnerable clients becomes a risk to your own safety, reputation, and liberty?

This is the reality for many women working alongside litigants in person in the family courts—particularly those operating as McKenzie Friends, legal consultants, and domestic abuse advocates.

The Expanding Role of Support in Family Proceedings

The modern family court is increasingly populated by litigants in person (LiPs). This is not a marginal trend—it is structural.

Legal aid restrictions, rising costs, and the complexity of proceedings have resulted in a system where individuals are expected to navigate deeply personal, high-stakes litigation without formal representation.

Into this gap step support providers:

  • McKenzie Friends
  • Independent legal consultants
  • Domestic abuse advocates
  • Peer supporters and campaigners

These roles are not merely administrative. In practice, they involve:

  • Preparing bundles and chronologies
  • Drafting position statements and responses
  • Advising on litigation strategy
  • Supporting clients emotionally through proceedings
  • Ensuring safeguarding concerns are properly articulated

In many cases, this support is the difference between a litigant being able to meaningfully participate in proceedings—or being overwhelmed by them.

Yet despite the critical nature of this work, these roles remain largely unregulated, unsupported, and unprotected.

The Gendered Reality of Advocacy Work

It is not coincidental that many of those providing this form of support are women.

Family law, domestic abuse advocacy, and child welfare work are all areas where female participation is high. These roles often attract individuals with lived experience, strong safeguarding instincts, and a commitment to protecting vulnerable parties.

But with that commitment comes exposure.

Exposure to:

  • High-conflict disputes
  • Allegations and counter-allegations
  • Emotional volatility
  • Procedural pressure
  • Institutional opacity

And increasingly, exposure to something more concerning: personal risk arising from the cases themselves.

When Allegations Expand Beyond the Parties

Family proceedings—particularly those involving allegations of domestic abuse—are inherently adversarial. Where credibility is central, narratives matter. Evidence matters. Framing matters.

Within this environment, it is not uncommon for allegations to escalate.

What is less openly discussed is how those allegations can extend beyond the parties themselves.

Support providers may find themselves:

  • Named in correspondence or complaints
  • Accused of influencing or coaching litigants
  • Drawn into disputes between the parties
  • Subject to reputational attacks

In some cases, these dynamics go further.

There are increasing concerns that legal and procedural mechanisms—including complaints and, in certain circumstances, police involvement—can be used in a way that has the effect of removing or discrediting those providing support.

This is a critical point.

The issue is not whether allegations are always unfounded. Clearly, that is not the case. But the system must recognise that in a high-conflict environment, allegations can also be strategic.

And when they are, the consequences extend beyond the immediate parties.

The Immediate Impact: Disruption of Support

The removal of a support provider—whether through fear, pressure, or formal intervention—has immediate consequences.

For the litigant in person, it can mean:

  • Loss of continuity in case preparation
  • Inability to respond effectively to allegations
  • Increased emotional distress
  • Procedural disadvantage at hearings

For the support provider, it can mean:

  • Reputational damage
  • Emotional and psychological strain
  • Withdrawal from advocacy work entirely
  • Reluctance to support future clients

This creates what can only be described as a chilling effect.

Capable, committed individuals begin to step back—not because the work is unnecessary, but because the risk becomes unsustainable.

Secondary Trauma and Systemic Blind Spots

Even without direct legal or reputational risk, the nature of domestic abuse advocacy carries a significant emotional burden.

Support providers are routinely exposed to:

  • Detailed accounts of abuse
  • Safeguarding concerns involving children
  • Evidence of coercive and controlling behaviour
  • Prolonged litigation cycles with uncertain outcomes

This is, in effect, secondary trauma.

Yet unlike regulated professionals, many support providers operate without:

  • Formal supervision
  • Access to structured mental health support
  • Clear professional boundaries recognised by the system
  • Institutional backing

When this emotional burden is combined with the risk of being drawn into the dispute itself, the impact on wellbeing becomes significant.

The Access to Justice Problem

This is where the issue moves beyond individual wellbeing and into systemic concern.

The family justice system relies—whether explicitly or implicitly—on the presence of informal support structures for litigants in person.

If those structures become unstable or unsafe, the consequences are predictable:

  • Reduced quality of evidence presented to the court
  • Increased procedural errors
  • Greater strain on judicial time and resources
  • Outcomes that may not fully reflect the child’s welfare

In domestic abuse cases, where safeguarding is paramount, the stakes are even higher.

The removal of informed, consistent support can directly affect how concerns are articulated, understood, and ultimately determined.

This is not a peripheral issue.

It goes to the heart of fairness in proceedings.

The Regulatory Gap

At present, there is no comprehensive framework governing the role, protection, or accountability of individuals providing litigation support outside of regulated legal practice.

McKenzie Friends, in particular, occupy a legally recognised but operationally ambiguous position.

They are permitted to:

  • Provide assistance with case preparation
  • Offer support in court
  • Take notes and quietly advise

But they are not afforded:

  • Clear professional protections
  • Defined safeguards against misuse of allegations
  • Consistent recognition of their role within proceedings

This creates a structural imbalance.

Support is permitted—but not protected.

What Needs to Change

If the legal sector is serious about addressing the wellbeing of women working within it, this issue cannot be ignored.

Meaningful reform requires a shift in perspective.

1. Recognition of the Role

There must be formal recognition of the contribution made by litigation support providers in family proceedings.

This includes acknowledging:

  • The complexity of the work undertaken
  • The safeguarding context in which it operates
  • The reliance placed on it by litigants in person

2. Clear Guidance and Boundaries

The system requires clearer guidance on:

  • The scope of permissible support
  • The distinction between assistance and interference
  • The appropriate treatment of support providers within proceedings

3. Safeguards Against Misuse

Mechanisms must be considered to prevent the misuse of complaints, allegations, or processes in a way that disrupts lawful support.

This is not about shielding individuals from accountability.

It is about ensuring that the system cannot be used tactically to remove support where it is legitimately provided.

4. Wellbeing Support and Awareness

Workforce wellbeing strategies must extend beyond traditional legal roles.

This includes:

  • Recognition of secondary trauma
  • Access to support resources
  • Inclusion of advocacy roles in wellbeing discussions

A Strategic Reality

For those currently operating in this space, the reality is clear.

This work is essential—but it is not without risk.

That risk must be managed strategically.

This includes:

  • Maintaining clear professional boundaries
  • Documenting all interactions and advice
  • Avoiding direct involvement in disputes between parties
  • Ensuring communications are measured and evidence-based

Above all, it requires an understanding that the environment is not neutral.

Family proceedings—particularly those involving allegations—are dynamic, contested, and, at times, unpredictable.

Conclusion: Beyond Wellbeing

The conversation about women’s wellbeing in the legal sector is necessary—and overdue.

But it must go further.

It must recognise that in certain areas of practice, the issue is not simply one of workload or workplace culture.

It is one of risk.

Risk to reputation.

Risk to mental health.

And, in some cases, risk arising directly from the act of providing support itself.

Until this is acknowledged—and addressed—the system will continue to rely on individuals who are operating without the protections that their role demands.

And litigants in person, particularly those navigating domestic abuse cases, will continue to face proceedings without the consistent support they need.

Clarity. Strategy. Confidence.

Those principles do not apply only to litigation.

They must apply to the system itself.

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Regulatory & Editorial Notice:
JSH Law Ltd is not a firm of solicitors and does not provide reserved legal activities. The content of this article is for information and commentary purposes only and does not constitute legal advice. Any references to systemic issues or procedural concerns are based on general observations within the family justice system and should not be taken as findings in any individual case.

Forgiveness, Family Court and Healing: Lessons from Joseph (Genesis 42–50)

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Joseph had every reason to seek revenge.
Instead, he chose forgiveness — and saw that even his suffering had purpose.

This week’s reflection looks at what Genesis 42–50 teaches litigants in person about family conflict, healing and finding meaning in difficult seasons.

If you’re navigating family court, this one is for you.

“God Meant It unto Good” — What Genesis 42–50 Teaches Litigants in Person About Forgiveness, Family Fracture and Finding Meaning in Trial

Sunday Reflection | JSH Law

Every Sunday after church I like to reflect on the scriptures and think about how the lesson connects with the work I do supporting litigants in person navigating the family court. This week I am catching up on a lesson I missed blogging about at the time: March 16–22, “God Meant It unto Good”, covering Genesis 42–50. It is one of the most searching and moving parts of the Joseph story, because it brings us to the point where suffering, betrayal, family fracture, reconciliation and divine purpose all meet.

Joseph has every reason, on a purely human level, to harden his heart. His brothers sold him into slavery. He suffered false accusation, imprisonment and years of separation from his father and family. When he finally sees his brothers again, he is in a position of extraordinary power. He could expose them, punish them, humiliate them or cut them off. Instead, Joseph does something far more difficult: he forgives. More than that, he sees that God has been at work even in the suffering. He tells them, “God meant it unto good”.

That is not a shallow slogan. It is not a denial of harm. It is not a minimising of wrongdoing. It is a hard-won spiritual perspective formed after years of trial. For litigants in person in family court, that matters. Many people going through proceedings are living in the aftermath of betrayal, deception, coercion, abandonment, estrangement or prolonged conflict. Joseph’s story does not tell us that these things do not wound. It tells us that they do not have to be the end of the story.

Key Takeaways for Litigants in Person

  • Forgiveness is not the same thing as pretending harm never happened. Joseph remembered clearly what his brothers had done, but he refused to let revenge govern his response.
  • Family rupture does not always mean the story is over. Some relationships can be healed, some can only be managed safely, but despair is not the only future.
  • You do not need to understand every trial while you are inside it. Sometimes meaning only becomes clearer in retrospect.
  • God can bring purpose out of suffering without being the author of wrongdoing. That distinction matters deeply in family court and in real life.
  • Litigants in person need both tenderness and discipline. Emotional healing and practical preparation have to sit side by side.
  • Reconciliation without wisdom is dangerous. Where abuse, coercive control or significant harm are involved, forgiveness does not remove the need for boundaries, safeguards or proper court orders.

Why this lesson matters so much in family court work

One of the most difficult things for litigants in person is that family court rarely deals with neat, one-dimensional problems. It deals with relationships. It deals with love, fear, history, loyalty, disappointment, harm, memory, children, identity and power. And because of that, it often reaches into the deepest emotional and spiritual parts of a person’s life.

When I work with litigants in person, I regularly see people struggling not just with process but with meaning. They are asking questions that are much bigger than forms and hearings:

  • Why has this happened to my family?
  • How do I keep going when this feels so unfair?
  • How do I protect my child without becoming consumed by anger?
  • What does forgiveness even mean when real harm has been done?
  • Can anything good come out of a season like this?

Genesis 42–50 does not answer those questions cheaply. But it does give us one of scripture’s most profound case studies in what it looks like to move from injury to insight, and from pain to purpose.

Joseph’s brothers return: the past comes back into the room

By the time we reach Genesis 42, Joseph’s brothers come to Egypt because there is famine in the land. They do not initially recognise Joseph, but Joseph recognises them. That moment is psychologically and spiritually loaded. The people who contributed directly to his suffering are suddenly standing in front of him, vulnerable and in need.

Many litigants in person know something of that feeling. The past comes back into the room. Sometimes it appears in the form of a hearing. Sometimes in a statement full of revisionist history. Sometimes in seeing an ex-partner or estranged relative again after a painful period of silence. Sometimes in being forced by proceedings to revisit a chapter of life you would rather not relive.

Joseph does not instantly move to reunion. He tests, observes and discerns. This matters. Forgiveness in scripture is not always impulsive. It is not blindness. It is not naïveté. Joseph wants to see whether his brothers have changed. He wants truth brought into the light.

That is a useful principle for court users. In cases involving ordinary family fracture, there may be room for rebuilding. In cases involving coercive control, domestic abuse, manipulation or safeguarding concerns, testing reality matters. The court process exists in part because feelings and assertions are not enough; facts, patterns and risk all matter.

Forgiveness is not the same as denial

The church lesson rightly emphasises forgiveness, especially in Genesis 45 and Genesis 50:15–21. Joseph’s words are famous because they are so startling: the brother who was betrayed is the one who ends up speaking comfort to the betrayers.

But forgiveness here is not sentimental. Joseph does not say that what happened was acceptable. He does not say that betrayal did not matter. He does not erase truth in order to create a superficial peace.

That distinction is vital for litigants in person, particularly where domestic abuse or family harm is part of the picture. In the family court of England and Wales, where a child arrangements order is in issue and domestic abuse is alleged or admitted, Practice Direction 12J sets out what the court must consider, including safety, welfare and the risk of harm. Forgiveness does not displace safeguarding. Grace does not cancel proper risk assessment. :contentReference[oaicite:1]{index=1}

There is a damaging tendency in some circles to push people toward premature reconciliation in the name of peace. Scripture does not require that kind of foolishness. Joseph’s forgiveness is rooted in truth, wisdom and discernment. It emerges after time, testing and the clear exposure of what has happened. That is a healthier model.

What forgiveness can do to a family system

One of the most striking things about Genesis 45 and 50 is that Joseph’s forgiveness does not only affect Joseph. It changes the emotional climate of the entire family. Fear begins to loosen. Shame is met with mercy. Provision replaces scarcity. The possibility of a future opens up where revenge could have closed it down.

That does not mean every family can or should be restored to what it once was. Some relationships need distance, supervision, structure or legal boundaries. Some cannot safely be repaired in the ordinary sense at all. But it does mean that one person’s refusal to retaliate can alter the trajectory of a family system.

For a litigant in person, this may not mean warm reconciliation with the other party. More often it means something quieter and more disciplined:

  • refusing to escalate every provocation,
  • staying child-focused,
  • communicating with restraint,
  • letting facts speak,
  • and refusing to build your identity around grievance.

That is not weakness. It is mature strength.

“God meant it unto good” — what this does and does not mean

Genesis 50:20 is one of the most quoted verses in Joseph’s life, and one of the easiest to misuse. Joseph tells his brothers: “Ye thought evil against me; but God meant it unto good.”

Notice the structure carefully. The evil was real. Their intent was real. Joseph does not spiritualise it away. But he also sees that God was not defeated by their evil. God brought good through and beyond it.

That is a crucial distinction, especially when speaking to people who have been harmed. It would be pastorally and morally wrong to tell someone that abuse, coercion or cruelty was somehow good in itself. It was not. Wrongdoing remains wrongdoing. But God’s sovereignty means He can still bring healing, wisdom, protection, maturity and even future service out of what others intended for harm.

In legal life, this often looks like a person becoming far more discerning, grounded and courageous than they were before. It may look like learning how to advocate properly for a child. It may look like developing the confidence to set boundaries. It may look like discovering that your life is not over because one relationship or one litigation chapter broke apart.

Meaning in suffering is rarely visible in real time. Joseph could not have said “God meant it unto good” from the bottom of the pit with full comprehension. Much of the meaning came into focus only afterwards.

For litigants in person: you do not need to understand everything today

That point matters because family court is a place where people often become desperate to make immediate sense of everything. They want to know why the other party is behaving this way, why the process is so slow, why the court did not immediately see what seems obvious, why delay is happening, why their child is affected, why the truth is not landing quickly enough.

Those questions are understandable. But the demand for total immediate meaning can become its own burden. Joseph’s story offers another possibility: faithfulness before full understanding.

That does not mean passivity. It means doing the next right thing without waiting for the whole story to make sense.

For some litigants in person, the next right thing is practical:

  • completing the C100 application,
  • understanding the child arrangements process on GOV.UK,
  • preparing properly for Cafcass involvement,
  • or getting support to organise evidence and chronology. :contentReference[oaicite:2]{index=2}

For others, the next right thing is internal:

  • putting down revenge fantasies,
  • limiting reactive communication,
  • stopping the endless re-reading of inflammatory messages,
  • or admitting that grief, not rage, is the deeper wound.

Joseph and Christ: rescue, provision and reconciliation

The official lesson also points us to the typology between Joseph and Jesus Christ. Joseph is beloved by his father, betrayed for money, rejected by his own, and later becomes the means of preservation and rescue. Christ, in the greater and truer sense, bears suffering brought about by others’ sin and then offers life, forgiveness and reconciliation.

That matters because Joseph is not just a moral example. He is also a signpost. He points beyond himself to the Saviour, who is the true source of healing for both the one who needs forgiveness and the one who must extend it.

For a litigant in person, this can be the difference between trying to perform spiritual heroics alone and actually drawing on grace. Many people know what they “should” do but have no emotional power left to do it. They may know they should not retaliate, but they are exhausted. They may know they should not let bitterness consume them, but they are deeply wounded. The answer is not self-generated moral perfection. It is receiving help from Christ in the middle of the struggle.

Jacob’s blessings, identity and the future

In Genesis 49, Jacob blesses his sons. The church lesson draws attention to the prophetic nature of these blessings, especially regarding Judah and Joseph. Whatever one makes of every detail, the broader point is clear: God is still speaking future, identity and covenant over a family that has been through astonishing dysfunction.

That is encouraging for anyone whose family story feels broken. It means fracture is not the only lens through which God sees a family. He also sees purpose, calling, inheritance and future.

For litigants in person, that may be a needed reminder. A court case can shrink life down to allegations, statements, text messages, missed handovers and hearing dates. Necessary as those things are, they are not the whole truth about who you are or what your family can yet become.

A practical reflection for LiPs this week

If you are in proceedings right now, here are six practical questions to sit with after reading Genesis 42–50:

  1. Where am I tempted to let bitterness lead my strategy?
  2. What would it look like to tell the truth clearly without being consumed by revenge?
  3. What part of this situation may only make sense later, not now?
  4. What practical preparation do I need to do this week?
  5. Where do I need boundaries rather than fantasy reconciliation?
  6. How might God still bring good out of a chapter I would never have chosen?

If you are at the beginning of a private law children case, it is also worth understanding what Cafcass does and what typically happens after an application is issued. Cafcass explains the private law process, including the first hearing and its role in advising the court about arrangements that best promote the child’s safety and wellbeing. Their guide is here. :contentReference[oaicite:3]{index=3}

15-minute consultation

If you are a litigant in person and need help thinking strategically about your case, organising your evidence, preparing for hearing, or approaching family proceedings with more clarity and calm, you can book a 15-minute consultation below.

Final reflection

I am proud to be a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and one reason I return to these Sunday reflections is that the scriptures are honest about human life. Genesis 42–50 is not tidy. It is full of grief, famine, guilt, fear, memory, tears and mercy. It understands what families can do to one another. But it also understands that God can still work in the middle of that reality.

For me, Joseph’s witness is not that suffering is pleasant or that every wound is quickly resolved. It is that God is not absent in betrayal, and not defeated by it. He can heal what has been shattered, expose what has been hidden, and bring wisdom and provision out of chapters that once looked only destructive.

If you are going through family court as a litigant in person, perhaps this week’s message is simply this: do not let the harm done to you become the architect of who you are becoming. Tell the truth. Protect what needs protecting. Use the process properly. Stay anchored. And leave room for God to bring good out of a story you would never have written this way yourself.

When Life Feels Unfair: Lessons from Joseph for Litigants in Person in Family Court

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Every Sunday after church I like to take a few moments to reflect on the scriptures and consider how the lessons connect with the work I do supporting litigants in person navigating the family court. This week’s Come, Follow Me lesson, “The Lord Was with Joseph” (Genesis 37–41), speaks powerfully to anyone facing adversity that feels deeply unfair. Joseph was betrayed by his own brothers, sold into slavery, falsely accused, and imprisoned despite doing what was right. Yet through every stage of his hardship the scriptures repeat the same quiet truth: the Lord was with him. For many people going through family court proceedings, that message can be profoundly comforting. Difficult seasons do not mean that God has abandoned us. Sometimes they are the very moments where our character, resilience, and faith are being quietly strengthened.

The Lord Was With Joseph: What Genesis 37–41 Teaches Litigants in Person About Endurance, Integrity and Preparation

Sunday Reflection – Genesis 37–41

Each Sunday after church I spend some time reflecting on the scriptures and considering how the lessons apply to the work I do supporting litigants in person navigating the family court. This week’s Come, Follow Me lesson is titled “The Lord Was with Joseph” and focuses on Genesis 37–41. It is one of the most powerful narratives in the Old Testament about adversity, injustice, patience, and the quiet presence of God during long seasons of hardship.

Anyone who has experienced family conflict, betrayal, or legal proceedings will recognise elements of Joseph’s story. He is betrayed by his own brothers, sold into slavery, falsely accused, imprisoned, forgotten, and yet—remarkably—never abandons his faith or his integrity. The scriptures repeat a simple but profound truth throughout his life: “The Lord was with Joseph.”

For litigants in person navigating the family court, this message carries real weight. Court proceedings can feel isolating and overwhelming. People often face allegations, misunderstandings, delays, and emotional strain that seem deeply unfair. Joseph’s life reminds us that hardship does not mean that God has abandoned us. In fact, some of the most transformative moments in our lives occur during the seasons when we feel most tested.

Key Takeaways for Litigants in Person

  • Integrity matters even when no one is watching. Joseph refused temptation even when it would have been easy to compromise.
  • Unfair situations do not mean God has abandoned you. Joseph was falsely accused and imprisoned, yet the Lord remained with him.
  • Preparation during difficult seasons creates future stability. Joseph’s planning saved an entire nation during famine.
  • Family conflict can eventually be healed. Joseph’s story later becomes one of reconciliation.
  • Faith and practical preparation must work together. In both spiritual life and family court proceedings, patience and preparation are essential.

Joseph’s Story: Faith During Betrayal

The story begins in Genesis 37. Joseph is a young man who receives dreams from God that suggest he will one day lead his family. Instead of bringing honour, these dreams bring jealousy and resentment from his brothers. Eventually they sell him into slavery.

For many people involved in family court proceedings, this moment resonates deeply. Family breakdowns often involve painful feelings of betrayal, misunderstanding, or abandonment. Relationships that were once trusted can become fractured, and the emotional shock can be profound.

Joseph’s experience reminds us that hardship within families is not a modern phenomenon. Families in scripture were often complex, strained, and imperfect. Yet even in these circumstances, God continued to work through individuals who remained faithful.

The Lord Was With Joseph in Adversity

One of the most striking features of Joseph’s story appears in Genesis 39, where the scriptures repeatedly emphasise:

“And the Lord was with Joseph.”

This phrase appears several times in the chapter. It appears while Joseph is working as a servant in Egypt. It appears again when he is falsely accused and imprisoned.

In other words, the Lord was with Joseph both in success and in suffering.

This is an important spiritual principle. Many people assume that God’s presence means life will become easier. But scripture often teaches something different: God’s presence does not remove adversity; it strengthens us within it.

For litigants in person facing the uncertainty of family court, this perspective can be deeply reassuring. Court processes are rarely quick or simple. There are hearings, reports, statements, delays, and emotional strain. But the presence of hardship does not mean we have been abandoned.

Sometimes it simply means we are walking through a refining season.

Integrity When Temptation Appears

Another powerful moment in Joseph’s story occurs when he faces temptation from Potiphar’s wife (Genesis 39). Joseph refuses to compromise his moral standards, even though doing so would have been easier.

His response is clear and courageous:

“How then can I do this great wickedness, and sin against God?”

Joseph ultimately pays a heavy price for his integrity. Potiphar’s wife falsely accuses him, and he is imprisoned.

This moment reflects an uncomfortable truth about life: doing the right thing does not always lead to immediate reward. Sometimes integrity leads to short-term hardship.

But integrity also builds long-term trust, character, and spiritual strength.

For litigants in person, integrity is essential. Courts rely heavily on credibility. Judges observe behaviour carefully. Staying calm, honest, and respectful—even under pressure—can make a profound difference.

Joseph’s example reminds us that character matters even when circumstances feel unfair.

God Works Through Long Periods of Waiting

One of the most difficult aspects of Joseph’s story is the length of time he spends in prison. Years pass before his situation changes.

Waiting is difficult for everyone, but it can feel especially frustrating within legal proceedings. Family court cases can move slowly, and outcomes may not be immediately clear.

Joseph’s experience shows that waiting does not mean nothing is happening.

During his imprisonment, Joseph develops wisdom, patience, and spiritual maturity. He continues to trust God and serve others. Eventually he interprets dreams for Pharaoh’s servants, which later leads to his release.

Sometimes the most important work in our lives happens quietly while we are waiting.

Guidance Through Revelation

Joseph possessed a remarkable spiritual gift: he was able to interpret dreams through revelation from God. When Pharaoh later experienced troubling dreams, Joseph explained that the dreams foretold seven years of abundance followed by seven years of famine.

Joseph did not simply interpret the dreams. He also proposed a practical plan to prepare for the coming hardship.

This moment in Genesis 41 highlights a powerful principle:

Faith should lead to wise preparation.

Joseph recommended storing grain during the years of abundance so the nation would survive the famine.

Preparation saved countless lives.

The Importance of Preparation

Preparation is equally important for people navigating legal challenges.

For litigants in person, preparation might include:

  • Creating a clear chronology of events
  • Organising evidence and documents
  • Understanding court procedures
  • Preparing statements carefully
  • Maintaining calm and respectful communication

Just as Joseph prepared Egypt for famine, individuals preparing for court hearings must plan ahead. Good preparation reduces stress and allows people to present their case clearly.

Faith does not replace preparation. Instead, the two work together.

Recognising God’s Hand in Difficult Seasons

Looking back at Joseph’s life, we can see how each painful event ultimately prepared him for leadership. The betrayal, slavery, imprisonment, and waiting all formed part of a larger story.

At the time, Joseph could not see how these experiences would unfold.

But God could.

For anyone facing difficult circumstances today—whether family conflict, legal stress, or personal trials—Joseph’s story offers hope. Hard seasons do not define the final chapter of our lives.

Sometimes they prepare us for something greater.

When Life Feels Unfair

One of the most relatable aspects of Joseph’s story is the sense of injustice he experiences. He is punished for something he did not do. He is forgotten by people he helped.

Many litigants in person experience similar emotions. Legal disputes often involve competing narratives, accusations, and misunderstandings.

In these moments it can be tempting to become discouraged or resentful.

Joseph’s story encourages a different response: patience, faith, and continued integrity.

Even when circumstances seem unfair, God is still working quietly behind the scenes.

Hope for the Future

Joseph’s life eventually transforms dramatically. Pharaoh recognises his wisdom and appoints him as a leader in Egypt. The man who once sat in prison becomes responsible for saving a nation.

This dramatic change did not happen overnight.

It came after years of perseverance.

Joseph’s journey reminds us that today’s difficulties may be preparing us for tomorrow’s opportunities.

For litigants in person, this perspective can help sustain resilience. Court proceedings may feel overwhelming, but they do not define your future.

Lessons for Today

The lesson from this week’s Come, Follow Me study is clear: God does not abandon His people during adversity.

Joseph’s life teaches us that faith, integrity, and preparation matter deeply. When we remain committed to doing what is right, even under pressure, God can guide us through the most difficult seasons.

If you would like to read the full church lesson that inspired this reflection, you can find it here:

Come, Follow Me: Genesis 37–41 – “The Lord Was with Joseph”

Supporting Litigants in Person

If you are currently navigating family court proceedings without legal representation, you are not alone. Many people face these situations with limited support and considerable emotional pressure.

Part of my work through JSH Law is helping litigants in person prepare for court, organise their case materials, and understand the legal process.

Sometimes the most valuable support is simply having someone who understands both the legal system and the human realities behind it.

Book a 15-Minute Consultation

If you would like to discuss your situation, you can book a short introductory consultation below.

Final Reflection

Joseph’s story is ultimately a story of hope. It shows that God’s presence does not disappear when life becomes difficult. In fact, it may be during those moments that His quiet guidance is most present.

The scriptures say repeatedly:

“The Lord was with Joseph.”

That promise remains just as meaningful today.

Regulatory & Editorial Notice: JSH Law Ltd provides legal consultancy and McKenzie Friend support services for litigants in person. This article is intended for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute formal legal advice. References to scripture, faith perspectives, or third-party sources are included as part of personal commentary and reflective writing.

When Court Process Becomes a Tool of Abuse – Why post-separation abuse, litigants in person, and procedural design cannot be treated separately

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One of the most persistent myths in family justice is that abuse ends when a relationship ends.

Introduction: abuse does not end at separation

One of the most persistent misconceptions in family justice is that abuse ends when a relationship ends.

For many women, it does not.

It changes form.

What follows separation is often not peace, but post-separation abuse — exercised through money, children, delay, litigation, procedural complexity, and exhaustion. Increasingly, this abuse is facilitated not by individual actors alone, but by systems that are poorly designed for the people forced to use them.

For survivors who are also litigants in person (LiPs), the family court process itself can become the terrain on which harm continues.

This article examines:

  • how court process is routinely weaponised after separation
  • why survivors are disproportionately forced to self-represent
  • how procedural complexity compounds trauma
  • and why process design is a safeguarding issue, not an administrative one

1. Post-separation abuse: a brief reality check

Post-separation abuse refers to a pattern of behaviour where one party continues to exert control after the relationship has ended. It often includes:

  • financial obstruction or non-payment
  • repeated or strategic litigation
  • refusal to engage in mediation in good faith
  • manipulation of contact arrangements
  • vexatious applications and appeals
  • exploiting procedural rules to cause delay or pressure

Crucially, this form of abuse is process-dependent. It relies on complexity, ambiguity, and asymmetry.

Where systems are slow, opaque, or inconsistent, they are easier to exploit.

2. Why survivors are so often litigants in person

Survivors of abuse are disproportionately likely to be unrepresented in family proceedings.

Common reasons include:

  • legal aid thresholds that exclude many survivors
  • financial abuse leaving one party unable to fund representation
  • the other party’s ability to prolong proceedings and increase costs
  • repeated applications that make sustained representation unaffordable
  • emotional exhaustion and loss of trust in professionals

The result is a deeply unequal dynamic:
one party using the system strategically, the other struggling simply to comply with it.

This imbalance is often misread by courts as “poor presentation”, “lack of focus”, or “high conflict”, rather than recognised as the product of trauma and systemic design.

3. When court process itself becomes harmful

Family court processes are often described as neutral. In practice, they are not.

For survivors, common procedural features can be actively harmful:

  • fragmented hearings spread over months or years
  • repeated requirements to recount abuse in different formats
  • unclear or inconsistently applied directions
  • pressure to produce “concise” evidence of complex coercive behaviour
  • expectations of calm, neutral presentation under acute stress

Each of these creates opportunities for further harm — especially where one party understands how to exploit delay, confusion, or fatigue.

This is not about bad faith judges or staff. It is about systems that assume emotional neutrality and legal literacy where neither exists.

4. The litigant in person burden: compliance under trauma

Litigants in person are expected to:

  • understand procedural stages
  • comply with directions precisely
  • file documents correctly and on time
  • evidence allegations to the correct standard
  • distinguish between narrative, evidence, and submissions

For survivors of abuse, these expectations are layered on top of:

  • ongoing fear or contact with the abuser
  • financial precarity
  • childcare and safeguarding responsibilities
  • trauma responses that affect memory and communication

When LiPs struggle under these conditions, the system often treats the difficulty as personal failure rather than predictable overload.

5. Why “high conflict” is often a misdiagnosis

One of the most damaging shortcuts in family proceedings is the label “high conflict”.

While genuinely mutual conflict exists in some cases, in many others this label:

  • obscures power imbalance
  • masks post-separation abuse
  • penalises the survivor for responding to provocation
  • treats procedural distress as personality

Where one party uses the system strategically and the other reacts under pressure, the appearance of “conflict” can be misleading.

Without process literacy and trauma awareness, systems risk rewarding the more legally fluent party, not the safer or more truthful one.

6. Process design is a safeguarding issue

Safeguarding is often discussed in terms of outcomes: orders made, findings reached, contact arrangements imposed.

But safeguarding also lives in process.

Clear, humane process design can:

  • reduce opportunities for harassment through litigation
  • limit unnecessary repetition of traumatic material
  • help survivors present evidence coherently
  • reduce judicial time spent untangling confusion
  • lower emotional and financial attrition

Conversely, opaque or inconsistent process enables abuse to continue under the cover of legality.

Treating process as “mere administration” is a category error.
Process determines who copes, who collapses, and who is believed.

7. Where LiP-centred legal tech can reduce harm

This is where properly designed legal tech — used responsibly — matters.

LiP-centred tools do not replace lawyers or judges. They help people:

  • understand where they are in proceedings
  • know what is required next
  • organise evidence proportionately
  • track deadlines and directions
  • separate narrative from admissible material
  • reduce cognitive overload

For survivors, this kind of support can be the difference between:

  • compliance and collapse
  • clarity and chaos
  • being heard and being dismissed

Importantly, this is navigation support, not legal advice.

8. The role of regulators and professional bodies

One barrier to innovation in this space is fear.

Developers, support services, and practitioners often hesitate because the boundary between “help” and “advice” feels unsafe.

Clearer guidance from bodies such as the Solicitors Regulation Authority on:

  • what constitutes procedural assistance
  • how LiP support tools can be used ethically
  • where professional responsibility begins and ends

would enable more survivor-centred design without increasing risk.

Silence in this area does not protect the public — it entrenches inequality.

9. Reframing the question courts should be asking

Instead of asking:

“Why is this litigant struggling to comply?”

The better question is:

“What about this process makes compliance so difficult under these circumstances?”

That shift alone changes outcomes.

When courts, regulators, and designers recognise that systems shape behaviour, they can begin to reduce harm rather than unintentionally perpetuate it.

Key takeaways

  • Post-separation abuse often continues through court process
  • Survivors are disproportionately forced to self-represent
  • Procedural complexity compounds trauma and imbalance
  • “High conflict” can obscure coercive dynamics
  • Process design is a safeguarding issue
  • LiP-centred navigation tools can reduce harm without giving legal advice

PD12J in plain English (why it matters)

Practice Direction 12J (PD12J) applies in Children Act private law cases where domestic abuse is alleged or admitted. In practical terms, it exists to ensure the court identifies domestic abuse and deals with child arrangements in a way that prioritises safety and avoids arrangements that could expose a child or a parent to harm.

  • It is relevant from the start of the case (not just at fact-finding).
  • It influences directions, what evidence is needed, and how risk is assessed.
  • It is especially important where abuse continues after separation (including through litigation or contact arrangements).

LiP tip: If domestic abuse is in issue, think of PD12J as the framework the court should use to keep safeguarding central throughout the case.

PD12J: what the court should actively be looking for

PD12J requires the court to take domestic abuse seriously as a safeguarding issue, not as “relationship conflict”. That includes patterns such as:

  • Coercive and controlling behaviour (ongoing patterns rather than one-off incidents)
  • Post-separation abuse (including harassment through contact handovers, money, or litigation behaviour)
  • Child impact: direct harm, emotional harm, exposure to abuse, or coercive dynamics affecting parenting

LiP tip: You do not need to prove “perfect evidence” of every detail to raise safeguarding risk. The court’s job is to identify and manage risk proportionately.

“High conflict” vs PD12J: the safeguarding lens

PD12J pushes the court to look beyond “he said / she said” conflict and ask safeguarding questions. Where there is an imbalance of power, patterns of control, or intimidation, the issue is not “mutual conflict” — it is risk.

How “high conflict” is often framedHow PD12J expects the court to frame it
Both parties are equally responsibleAssess power imbalance and coercive dynamics
Strong emotions = unreliableConsider trauma and fear as context, then test evidence fairly
Keep contact moving to reduce tensionDo not order unsafe arrangements; manage risk first

PD12J and “process abuse”: what good case management looks like

Where abuse is alleged, PD12J supports tighter, safeguarding-led case management to reduce opportunities for misuse of the process. Examples include:

  • Clear, stage-based directions (what is needed, by when, and why)
  • Focused issues (what the court is deciding at each hearing)
  • Proportionate evidence expectations (preventing sprawling, oppressive bundles)
  • Safety arrangements around contact, handovers, and communication

LiP tip: If the other party uses repeated applications, late disclosure, or constant allegations to destabilise you, name it neutrally as procedural misuse and ask the court for clear, structured directions.

Practical PD12J toolkit for litigants in person

If PD12J is relevant in your case, these are the practical documents that often help you present information clearly and safely:

  • Chronology (dates, events, and what evidence exists for each point)
  • Scott Schedule / Schedule of Allegations (where directed, or where it would assist clarity)
  • Impact statement (focused on the child impact and current risk, not lengthy narrative)
  • Communications log (short examples showing patterns, frequency, escalation)
  • Directions checklist (what the court ordered, deadlines, what you filed)

LiP tip: Keep it structured. Courts are more likely to engage with a clear, proportionate pack than with large, unindexed dumps of screenshots.

The PD12J question the court should be asking at every stage

“How does the alleged or admitted abuse affect risk, safety, and the child’s welfare — and what case management is needed to prevent further harm?”

This is the safeguarding-led approach PD12J is designed to embed. It also aligns with why process design matters: unclear or permissive process can create space for abuse to continue after separation.

Call to action

At JSH Law, we work with litigants in person — many of them survivors — who are navigating family proceedings under extreme pressure.

Our focus is on:

  • procedural clarity
  • evidence organisation
  • trauma-aware process navigation
  • responsible use of AI and legal tech to reduce overload

If you are:

  • a litigant in person struggling to manage court process, or
  • a practitioner, policymaker, or developer working in this space

then this conversation matters.

You can contact us via the form here to discuss support, collaboration, or system-level work.

Regulatory & Editorial Notice

This article is published for general information and public legal education. It does not constitute legal advice and should not be relied upon as such. Family law, safeguarding practice, and procedural rules are fact-specific and subject to change. References to abuse, trauma, or post-separation conduct are discussed at a general level and do not describe any individual case.